Dynasties of ChinaQing dynastyQing dynasty lineage
Guangxu · Reign 1875—1908
He was established as emperor at the age of four. He tried to reform and become stronger but was imprisoned by Cixitaihou. He died of arsenic poisoning at the age of thirty-eight.
Zaitian is the second son of Prince Chun Yixuan, and his biological mother is Cixitaihou's sister Yehenala. In 1875, Emperor Tongzhi died without a son. Cixitaihou selected the four-year-old Zaitian to succeed Emperor Xianfeng as his son, that is, the emperor. He changed the throne to Guangxu, and the empress dowagers of the two palaces once again listened to the government behind the curtain. He was educated by Weng Tonghe since he was a child. After his wedding in 1889, he took charge of the government himself, but he still had to consult Cixitaihou for instructions on employment and administration.
In the early days of Guangxu, the Qing government, driven by the Westernization Movement, established modern industries, mining, railways, telegraphs, and the navy. Zuo Zongtang recovered Xinjiang, and Xinjiang and Taiwan were established as provinces one after another. However, the Sino-French war was "defeated without defeat". In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out. The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed the following year, ceding Taiwan and paying an indemnity of 200 million taels. The national crisis deepened unprecedentedly. In 1898, he appointed Kang Youwei and others to implement the Reform Movement of 1898. A hundred days later, Cixitaihou launched a coup and imprisoned him in Yingtai, Zhongnanhai.
In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion broke out and the Eight-Power Allied Forces captured Beijing. He fled westward with Cixitaihou, and the Qing government signed the "Xinchou Treaty" the following year. After that, the Qing government implemented the New Deal, abolished the imperial examination in 1905, and announced preparations for the establishment of a constitution in 1906, but he was always under house arrest. On November 14, 1908, Zai Tan died in Hanyuan Hall, Yingtai, and Cixitaihou also died the next day. In 2008, the National Qing History Compilation Committee and other institutions tested his hair and determined that he died of arsenic poisoning.
Zaitan was determined to reform and strengthen himself. The edict of the Reform Movement of 1898 involved many aspects of politics, economy, education, and military, which was of progressive significance at the time. However, he had lived under the authority of Cixitaihou since he was a child. He lacked political experience and strength foundation. His reforms were carried out too hastily and without reliable military support, which ultimately failed. During the thirty-three years of his nominal rule, China experienced two disastrous defeats during the Sino-Japanese War and the Gengzi Period, resulting in a massive loss of sovereignty. He himself spent the last ten years in confinement.
PoliticsAscended to the throne at the age of four
After the death of Emperor Tongzhi, Cixitaihou did not establish an heir for him, but made Prince Chun's son Zaitian the successor of Emperor Xianfeng as his son so that he could continue to listen to politics behind the curtain. Zaitian came to the throne at the age of four, and was replaced by Guangxu the following year. This move violated the convention of establishing heirs for the Tongzhi Emperor and caused criticism from some courtiers.
MilitaryRecover Xinjiang
Zuo Zongtang focused on fortification and defense, and supervised the army's march into Xinjiang. In 1877, he defeated the Aqubai regime and recovered all the lost territory except Ili the following year. In 1881, Zeng Jize revised the treaty with Russia and took back most of Ili. In 1884, Xinjiang was officially established as a province.
Lasting legacyAfter Xinjiang was established as a province, Dihua (now Urumqi) was the provincial capital, and in 1955 it was renamed the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.
SocietyDing Wu Qi Huang
Shanxi, Henan, Shaanxi, Zhili, Shandong and other northern provinces suffered from severe droughts for many years. The most severe years were in 1877 and 1878, when about 10 million people died of starvation and disease. It was known as the "Dingwu Famine" in history. The government, private sector, and foreign missionaries all participated in the relief effort, but to no avail.
EconomyKaiping Coal Mine and Tangxu Railway
Li Hongzhang sent Tang Tingshu to establish the Kaiping Mining Bureau, using Western methods to mine coal; and built the Tangxu Railway from Tangshan to Xugezhuang for coal transportation. It was opened to traffic in 1881 and is regarded as the beginning of China's self-built railways.
Lasting legacyKaiping Mining Bureau later merged with Luanzhou Coal Mine to form Kailuan. Today Kailuan Group is still in production, and Tangshan has Kailuan National Mine Park.
MilitarySino-French War
France invaded Vietnam and China. In 1884, the Fujian Navy was completely wiped out in the Battle of Majiang. The following year, veteran general Feng Zicai defeated the French army at Zhennanguan and turned the tide of the war. However, the Qing court took advantage of the victory to seek peace and signed the "Sino-French New Treaty", recognizing France's right to protect Vietnam. It was said at the time that "it was defeated without defeat."
Lasting legacyZhennanguan, now known as Friendship Pass, is located in Pingxiang, Guangxi. It is an important land port on the China-Vietnam border.
PoliticsTaiwan was established as a province
During the Sino-French War, Taiwan's strategic position was highlighted. The Qing government decided to establish Taiwan as a separate province, with Liu Mingchuan as the first governor. He built railways, set up electric wires, ran a postal service, and cleared land in Taiwan, making Taiwan one of the more advanced provinces in China at that time.
Lasting legacyThe Shiqiuling Tunnel in Keelung was the first railway tunnel in Taiwan excavated by Liu Mingchuan when he was building the railway, and its remains have been preserved to this day.
MilitaryBeiyang Navy formed
The Beiyang Navy, established under the leadership of Li Hongzhang, was officially established. It has such capital ships as Dingyuan and Zhenyuan, and is known as the number one in Asia. However, the Qing government did not purchase any more warships after that. It was said that naval funds were diverted to the construction of the Summer Palace, and by the time of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1894, it had lagged behind the Japanese navy.
MilitarySino-Japanese War
Japan used the Donghak Party uprising in Korea to provoke the war. The Qing army was defeated in Pyongyang. The Beiyang Navy lost five ships in the Battle of the Yellow Sea. The commander of the Zhiyuan ship, Deng Shichang, died for his country. The Japanese army subsequently captured Lushun and massacred the city. In early 1895, Weihaiwei fell and the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out.
Lasting legacyThe former site of the Beiyang Navy Admiral's Office on Liugong Island in Weihai is now the site of the China Sino-Japanese War Museum.
DiplomacySigning of the Treaty of Shimonoseki
Li Hongzhang went to Japan to negotiate peace and signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, ceding the Liaodong Peninsula, the entire island of Taiwan and all affiliated islands and the Penghu Islands, paying an indemnity of 200 million taels of silver, and opening up Shashi, Chongqing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou. After the intervention of Russia, Germany and France, the Qing government redeemed the Liaodong Peninsula with 30 million taels.
Lasting legacyTaiwan became a Japanese colony for fifty years. In 1945, Japan was defeated and surrendered, and Taiwan and Penghu returned to China.
PeopleWriting on the bus
The news of the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki reached Beijing. Kang Youwei and the provincial governors who were in Beijing to participate in the joint examination jointly submitted a letter requesting the rejection of peace, the relocation of the capital, and the reform of the law. This was known in history as the "Submission on the Bus". Although the petition failed to arrive, it marked the rise of the reform trend.
DiplomacyGreat powers leased harbors
Germany occupied Jiaozhou Bay under the pretext of the Juye Mission Incident. Russia, Britain, France and other countries immediately followed suit and leased Port Arthur Dalian, Weihaiwei, and Guangzhou Bay respectively. Britain also leased the "New Territories" north of Kowloon Boundary Street for ninety-nine years. The crisis of partition was imminent.
Lasting legacyThe New Territories lease expired on June 30, 1997, which became the time basis for Hong Kong's overall return; Qingdao, Zhanjiang and other places still have buildings from the lease period.
PoliticsReform Movement of 1898
In June, he promulgated an edict to "define the state affairs" and implemented new policies such as abolishing redundant officials, reforming the imperial examinations, establishing schools, rewarding industry, and training new armies. In September, Cixitaihou launched a coup and imprisoned Emperor Guangxu. Tan Sitong and other "Six Gentlemen of 1898" were killed. The reform lasted 103 days and failed.
CultureFounded the Capital University
As an important measure of the Reform Movement of 1898, the Capital University was established to take charge of national education, with Sun Jia Nai as the first minister of education. After the coup, most of the New Deal was abolished, except for the Peking Normal University, which was renamed Peking University in 1912.
Lasting legacyPeking University takes 1898, the year when the Beijing Normal University was founded, as the year of its founding.
CultureDiscover the Oracle
According to legend, Wang Yirong, a wine worshiper at the Imperial Academy, found ancient writings engraved on the Chinese medicine "dragon bone" and identified it as a relic of the Shang Dynasty. He began to acquire and study it. This is generally believed to be the beginning of the discovery of oracle-bone inscriptions. Later, scholars found the place where it was unearthed in Xiaotun, Anyang, Henan, which was the Yin Ruins, the capital of the Shang Dynasty.
Lasting legacyThe Oracle Bone Inscriptions were selected into UNESCO's "Memory of the World Register" in 2017, and the Yin Ruins were included in the World Cultural Heritage in 2006.
CultureDunhuang Scripture Cave
Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu discovered the Sutra Cave while clearing the sand from Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, which contains more than 50,000 scriptures, documents, and paintings from the 4th to 11th centuries. The Qing court paid little attention to it. After that, the British Stein and the Frenchman Pelliot and others successively took a large number of cultural relics overseas.
Lasting legacyDunhuang documents are scattered in Britain, France, Russia, Japan and other countries, thus forming the international "Dunhuang Study"; the Mogao Grottoes were listed as a World Cultural Heritage in 1987.
MilitaryGengzi Revolution
The Boxers entered Beijing and Tianjin under the slogan "Support the Qing Dynasty and destroy the foreign countries" and besieged the embassy area. The Qing government declared war on the foreign powers. When the Eight-Power Allied Forces captured Beijing, Cixitaihou took Emperor Guangxu and fled to Xi'an. Before leaving, he ordered Zhen Fei to be pushed into a well and drowned. The governors of the southeastern provinces signed the "Southeast Mutual Guarantee" with the great powers.
Lasting legacyThe Zhen Fei Well in the Ningshou Palace area of the Forbidden City is still preserved today.
DiplomacySigning of the Treaty of Xinchou
The Qing court signed the "Xin Chou Treaty" with eleven countries, paying an indemnity of 450 million taels of silver, to be paid off in thirty-nine years, with a total principal and interest of more than 980 million taels; Beijing's Dongjiaomin Lane was designated as the embassy boundary, allowing all countries to station troops and demolish the Dagu Fort.
Lasting legacyThe embassy complex in Dongjiaominxiang has been preserved to this day and was announced as a national key cultural relic protection unit in 2001.
CultureAbolish the imperial examination
In 1904, the Qing government promulgated the "Regulations of the School" and established the modern academic system. In 1905, the government adopted the petition of Yuan Shikai, Zhang Zhidong and others and announced that the civil service examination system would be suspended from the following year. The civil service examination system that had lasted for about 1,300 years came to an end. New schools and studying abroad became new ways out.
Science & technologyBuild the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway
Zhan Tianyou presided over the construction of the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway from Beijing to Zhangjiakou. He used a "herringbone" line in the Badaling area to reduce the slope and used the shaft method to dig tunnels. It was completed and opened to traffic in 1909, two years ahead of schedule. It was the first trunk railway designed and built by the Chinese.
Lasting legacyThe "herringbone" line at Qinglongqiao Station is still in use today; the Beijing-Zhangjiakou High-speed Railway opened in 2019 runs parallel to it and serves the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics.
PoliticsPreparing for constitution
After sending five ministers abroad to inspect constitutional government, the Qing government announced that it was "preparing to imitate constitutional government" and reform the official system. In 1908, the "Outline of the Imperial Constitution" was promulgated, stipulating that the National Assembly should be convened nine years later. However, the outline emphasized "the supreme power of the king", which deeply disappointed the constitutionalists.
PoliticsRestructuring of the Three Northeastern Provinces
The three generals of Shengjing, Jilin, and Heilongjiang were abolished, and the three provinces of Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang were established. The governors of the three eastern provinces and the governors of the three provinces were established. Xu Shichang was the first governor to strengthen the governance of the Northeast, which was coveted by Japan and Russia.
Lasting legacyToday's three provinces of Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang originated here. Fengtian Province was renamed Liaoning Province in 1929.
PoliticsDeath of Yingtai
Emperor Guangxu died in Yingtai on November 14, and Cixitaihou died of illness the next day. In 2008, the National Qing History Compilation Committee and other institutions tested his hair, bones and clothes and determined that he died of acute arsenic poisoning, but the identity of the poisoner has not yet been determined.
Lasting legacyEmperor Guangxu was buried in Chongling, the Western Mausoleum of the Qing Dynasty. The mausoleum was only built in 1915 with funding from the Republic of China government. It is the last imperial mausoleum in China.
Emperor Guangxu's aunt and stepmother listened to the government behind the curtain twice. After Emperor Guangxu came to power, he still had the final say. In 1898, he launched a coup and imprisoned Emperor Guangxu. In 1900, he supported the Boxer Rebellion and declared war on foreign powers. Later, he implemented the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty and died one day later than Emperor Guangxu.
A native of Changshu, Jiangsu Province, he was born as a scholar. He taught Emperor Guangxu for more than 20 years since his childhood. He later served as Minister of Household Affairs and Minister of Military Aircraft. He took the lead in the Sino-Japanese War of 1898 and recommended Kang Youwei to Emperor Guangxu. Shortly after the Reform Movement of 1898 began, he was offered a vacancy and returned home.
He has been in charge of Westernization for nearly 30 years, founded the Kaiping Mining Bureau and established the Beiyang Navy. After the defeat of the Sino-Japanese War, he went to Japan to sign the "Treaty of Shimonoseki". In 1901, he signed the "Treaty of Xinchou" on behalf of the Qing court. He died of illness in the same year.
A native of Xiangyin, Hunan, he advocated the recovery of Xinjiang during the dispute between coastal defense and fortress defense. He led the army to regain the entire territory of Xinjiang except Ili. He later carried the coffin out of the customs to show his determination and promote the establishment of Xinjiang province. During the Sino-French War, he supervised the military affairs in Fujian and died of illness in Fuzhou in 1885.
A native of Nanpi, Zhili Province, he was a late representative of the Westernization Movement. He served as the governor of Huguang for more than ten years. He founded the Hanyang Iron Works, the Hubei Gun Factory and the New School. He wrote "Encouraging Learning" and advocated "Chinese learning as the body and Western learning as the application", and participated in promoting the abolition of the imperial examination.
A native of Hefei, Anhui, he was a general of the Huai Army. During the Sino-French War, he oversaw the defense of Taiwan and resisted the French attack. He served as the first governor after the establishment of Taiwan as a province and implemented new policies such as railways, telegraphs, and postal services. He was one of the founders of Taiwan's modernization.
A native of Panyu, Guangdong, he was born in Fuzhou Shipbuilding School. During the Battle of the Yellow Sea, the Zhiyuan ship was seriously injured. He ordered the ship to rush towards the Japanese ship at full speed. It sank immediately, and he and more than 200 officers and soldiers on the ship died heroically.
A native of Nanhai, Guangdong, he launched the "Bus Letter" and wrote a book about the reform. In 1898, he was summoned by Emperor Guangxu to lead the Reform Movement of 1898. After the coup, he went into exile overseas and organized a royalist association to oppose the revolution.
A native of Xiangcheng, Henan, he organized and trained the new army in Tianjin Xiaozhan after the Sino-Japanese War. On the eve of the 1898 Coup, Tan Sitong visited him at night to ask for help. Historians have different opinions on whether he made a whistleblower and what role he played. Later, he served as governor of Zhili and minister of Beiyang, leading the military and educational reforms in the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty.
Talash entered the palace at the age of thirteen. He was intelligent and lively, and was deeply favored by Emperor Guangxu. He supported his reform ideas, which angered Cixitaihou. He was placed under house arrest after the 1898 Coup of 1898. In 1900, on the eve of the Eight-Power Allied Forces' invasion of Beijing, he was pushed into a well and drowned.