Dynasties of ChinaEarly China · The beginnings of civilization
11 Zhou kings · 475–221 BCE · Seven competing states
Seven major states competed through reform, warfare and intellectual debate. After over two centuries of conflict, Qin conquered its rivals and unified the realm.
Dynastic color · Slate
The name Warring States period comes from the "Warring States Period Policy" compiled by Western HanLiu Xiang. In 453 BC, the three ministers of Han, Zhao and Wei of Jin State joined forces to destroy the Zhi family and divided the Jin territory into three parts. In 403 BC, they were recognized as princes by the King Weilie of Zhou Dynasty. The Tian family of Qi State replaced the Jiang family, and Tian He was listed as a prince in 386 BC. At this point, the seven great kingdoms of Qin, Chu, Qi, Yan, Han, Zhao, and Wei stood side by side, known in history as the "Seven Heroes of the Warring States Period". The Emperor Zhou only retained a corner near Luoyang, which was later divided into the Eastern and Western Zhou Dynasties, which resembled a small country.
In order to survive in the fierce annexation war, various countries made changes one after another: Wei had Li Kui, Chu had Wu Qi, Han had Shen Buhai, Qi had Zou Ji, Qin had Shang Yang, and Zhao Wulingwang implemented Hufu riding and archery. Among them, Shang Yang's reform was the most thorough, which enabled Qin to rise from a weak country in the west to the top of the Seven Powers. Since then, various countries have joined together to fight wars on an unprecedented scale. In the Battle of Changping, according to "Historical Records", 400,000 Zhao soldiers were killed.
This was also the era when Chinese thought was most active. Hundreds of schools of thought, including Confucianism, Mohism, Taoism, Dharma, Ming, Yin and Yang, Zongheng, Bing, and Nong, competed to write books and establish theories. Scholars from all over the country gathered in the Jixia Academy of Qi State, forming a situation of "a hundred schools of thought contending." In 256 BC, Qin destroyed Western Zhou and Zhou King Nan died. The Zhou Dynasty, which lasted for about 800 years, came to an end. From 230 BC to 221 BC, King of QinYing Zheng successively destroyed Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan, and Qi, ending the separatist situation among the princes.
Li Kui promoted the "teaching of exerting the power of the land" in the Wei State, and it is said that he compiled the "Book of Laws"; Wu Qi eliminated redundant officials and weakened the monarchs in the Chu State; Shang Yang rewarded farming wars, abandoned well fields, and implemented the county system in the Qin State. Various countries implemented reforms to attack the old aristocracy and laid the foundation for a centralized bureaucracy.
Confucian Mencius and Xun Zi, Taoist Zhuangzi, Mohist Mo Zi, Legalists Shang Yang and Han Fei, as well as famous strategists, yin-yang strategists, political strategists, military strategists, farmers and other schools wrote books and argued. At its peak, the Jixia Academy of Qi State gathered "hundreds and thousands" of scholars and was the academic center at that time.
Iron farm tools and ox farming were gradually popularized, and large-scale water conservancy projects were built one after another: Xi Menbao of Wei State diverted water from Zhangzhou to irrigate Ye, Li Bing, the governor of Shu County of Qin State, presided over the construction of Dujiangyan, and Zheng Guo, a Korean hydraulic engineer, dug the Zheng Guo Canal for the Qin Dynasty, and Guanzhong became a fertile field.
The commandery-and-county system in which the king directly appointed and dismissed officials gradually replaced enfeoffment fiefs. Officials were selected based on their talents and military achievements, fiefdoms were replaced by salaries, and seals and talismans were used as certificates. Systems such as the division of responsibilities between generals and the year-end "top plan" assessment were successively formed.
Based on Chu folk songs, Qu Yuan created a new style of poetry with flexible sentence patterns and frequent use of the word "xi", represented by "Li Sao", which has magnificent imagination and passionate emotions. Later generations were called "coquettish" together with "The Book of Songs", which was the first of Chinese romantic literature.
Countries minted their own coins: cloth coins were mostly used in the Sanjin area, knife coins were mostly used in Qi and Yan, copper shells "Ant Nose Qian" and gold coins "Ying Yuan" were used in Chu State, round coins were used in Qin, Wei and other countries, and semi-liang coins with round square holes were cast in the late Qin Dynasty. The commodity economy became increasingly active.
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Zhi Bo of Jin State joined forces with Han and Wei to besiege the Zhao family in Jinyang. Han and Wei turned against each other before the battle, and the three families worked together to destroy the Zhi family and divide their territory. In 403 BC, the Zhou King Weilie officially designated Han, Zhao, and Wei as princes, and Sima Guang's "Zizhi Tongjian" began in this year.
For several generations, the Tian family of Qi State used means such as big fights for loans and small fights for incomes to win people's hearts and gradually control the state affairs. In 386 BC, Tian He was listed as a vassal by King An of Zhou Dynasty. In 379 BC, the surname Jiang was enshrined in the state of Qi and was known as "Tian clan on behalf of Qi" in history.
Duke Xiao of the Qin Dynasty appointed Shang Yang and implemented two reforms: abolishing the well fields and opening up the Qianmo Road, rewarding farming and fighting, conferring titles based on military merit, implementing the county system and Shiwu Lianzuo, and unifying weights and measures. The Qin State became rich and powerful, laying the foundation for future unification.
Wei general Pang Juan besieged Handan, the capital of Zhao. Qi, with Tian Ji as general and Sun Bin as military advisor, "surrounded Wei to save Zhao" and defeated the Wei army in Guiling. In 341 BC, Sun Bin used the strategy of "reducing the stove" to lure the enemy and set up an ambush in Maling. The Wei army was defeated, Pang Juan died, and the Wei state turned from prosperity to decline.
In 334 BC, Qi Weiwang and Wei Huiwang met in Xuzhou and respected each other as kings; in 325 BC, Qin Huiwenjun proclaimed himself king; in 323 BC, Wei, Han, Zhao, Yan, and Zhongshan became the "Five Kingdoms Prime Minister". The princes have proclaimed themselves kings one after another, and the Emperor of Zhou is no different from other small countries.
Gongsun Yan, Su Qin and others successively advocated that the six countries "unify vertically" to resist Qin, while Zhang Yi lobbied all countries to "unite horizontally" to serve Qin. In 318 BC, the five kingdoms united to attack Qin, but returned without success; in 313 BC, Zhang Yi used the land of 600 miles away as bait to induce Chu to sever diplomatic relations with Qi.
In order to fight against the nomadic tribes in the north and increase the military strength, Zhao Wulingwang, against all opinions, ordered to train the cavalry by wearing Hu people's short clothes and long trousers that are convenient for riding and shooting. After that, Zhao State conquered Zhongshan, expanded its territory to the north, and became one of the powerful states.
Yan King Zhao Lixian, a corporal, and Le Yi as the general, united Qin, Han, Zhao, and Wei to attack Qi, and captured more than 70 cities. King Min of Qi fled and was killed. In 279 BC, Qi general Tian Dan counterattacked with the Fire Ox Formation and regained all the lost territory, but the vitality of Qi was seriously damaged.
Qin general Bai Qi conquered Ying, the capital of Chu state, and burned the tomb of the ancestor king of Chu at Yiling. The state of Chu was forced to move its capital to Chen. It is said that Qu Yuan, the official of Sanlu of Chu State, was so angry after hearing the news that he drowned himself in the Miluo River.
Qin attacked Han Shangdang, and the governor of Shangdang surrendered to Zhao. Qin and Zhao fought in Changping. King Zhao fell into the Qin rebellion and replaced Lian Po with Zhao Kuo. Zhao Kuo rushed in and was surrounded, and was without food for forty-six days. He died in the battle during the breakout. According to "Historical Records", 400,000 surrendered soldiers were killed by Bai Qi.
The Qin army besieged Handan, but the king of Wei was afraid of Qin and ordered the reinforcements to stand still. Xin Lingjun Wei Wuji used Hou Ying's plan and asked the Wei king's favored concubine Ruji to steal the military talisman, kill the general Jin Bi, seize the army to rescue Zhao, and join forces with the Chu army to relieve the siege of Handan.
The Qin army attacked Western Zhou, and the king of Western Zhou entered Qin Xianyi and asked to surrender. In the same year, King Nan of Zhou Dynasty passed away, and the Zhou Dynasty, which lasted for about 800 years, came to an end. According to legend, Jiuding was also moved to the Qin State. In 249 BC, Qin Prime Minister Lü Buwei destroyed the Eastern Zhou Kingdom.
King of QinYing Zheng held a crown ceremony in Yongcheng and began to take charge of the government, and then put down the rebellion of Changxin Hou Lao Ai. The following year, he deposed Prime Minister Lü Buwei and adopted Li Si's "Book of Remonstrance and Expulsion" to recruit talents from the six countries and embark on the great cause of unification.
King Zheng of Qin appointed generals such as Wang Jian and Wang Ben, and successively destroyed Han in 230 BC, Zhao in 228 BC, Wei in 225 BC, Chu in 223 BC, Yan in 222 BC, and Qi in 221 BC. In the meantime, Crown Prince Dan of Yan sent Jing Ke to assassinate him, but failed.
The name Zhai is said to be from the Song State and from the Lu State. According to legend, he was a craftsman who advocated "universal love", "non-attack", "advocating the virtuous" and "frugal use". He rushed to the Chu State to dissuade Gong Shuban from attacking the Song Dynasty. Mohism was well-organized, and together with Confucianism, it was called "Xianxue". The "Mo Jing" also recorded knowledge of optics and mechanics.
The Duke of Wei, whose real name was Wei Yang, was granted the title of Shang Jun because of his meritorious service. After entering the Qin Dynasty, he gained the trust of Duke Xiao and carried out two reforms to win the trust of the people by "moving trees to establish trust". The new law made Qin rich and powerful, but it violated the interests of the old aristocracy. Duke Xiao was falsely accused of rebellion after his death, and his car broke apart and died.
A descendant of Sun Wu, he once studied the art of war with Pang Juan. Pang Juan was jealous of his talents and lured him to Wei State to be executed. Later, he was secretly carried back by the Qi envoy and served as Tian Ji's military advisor. He proposed the strategy of "Tian Ji horse racing" and defeated the Wei army in Guiling and Maling. In 1972, the bamboo slips of "Sun Bin's Art of War" were unearthed in Yinqueshan.
His name was Ke, a native of Zou State, and received his education from Zisimen. Inheriting and developing the Confucius theory, it advocates "good nature" and "benevolent government", and proposes that "the people are the most important, the country is the second most important, and the king is the least important". He once lobbied Qi and Wei to no avail, so he retreated and wrote "Mencius" with his disciples, and was revered as "the Lesser Sage".
He was named Zhou, a Mongolian native of the Song Dynasty, and once served as an official in Qiyuan. King Wei of Chu hired him as his prime minister with a large sum of money, but he smiled and declined. Inheriting and developing Laozi's thoughts, he advocated being free and harmonious, and conforming to nature. His articles were free and unrestrained, and he often used fables. In later generations, he and Laozi were called "Laozi and Zhuangzi", and he was the author of "Zhuangzi".
A native of Wei, it is said that he and Su Qin learned from Guiguzi. After entering the Qin Dynasty as the prime minister, he used the strategy of "connecting and horizontal" to persuade other countries to serve the Qin Dynasty. He once lured the Chu State to defeat the Qi State by conducting business within 600 miles, and helped the Qin State defeat them one by one. After King Wu of Qin came to the throne, he fell out of favor and left Qin to join Wei. He died the next year.
A native of Luoyang in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. "Historical Records" said that he lobbied the six countries to unite to fight against Qin and admired the seal of the six countries; according to Mawangdui's "Warring States Period Political Letters", his main activities were later than Zhang Yi's.
His name was Ping, and his courtesy name was Yuan. He was a nobleman of Chu State and served as Zuotu and Sanlu doctor. He advocated uniting Qi to resist Qin and amending the legal system. He was slandered and alienated by Chu Huaiwang. He was exiled to the south of the Yangtze River during the Qing Dynasty. According to legend, Yingdu sank into the Miluo River after being conquered by Qin. His works such as "Li Sao", "Nine Songs" and "Tian Wen" created the Chu Ci style.
During the period of Zhao King Huiwen, he was worshiped as Shangqing for his contribution to conquering Qi. He was once at odds with Lin Xiangru. When he saw that Lin Xiangru was putting state affairs first and giving in at every turn, he "begged for mercy" and the two became close friends. In the early days of the Battle of Changping, he stood firm and was later replaced by Zhao Kuo. In his later years, he was excluded and died as a guest in Chu State.
He was originally a disciple of Ling Muxian, the eunuch of Zhao State. Fenghe's jade was sent to Qin as an envoy, and he saw through the deception of King of Qin in exchanging the jade from the city, and "returned the jade to Zhao intact"; at the Mianchi meeting, he forced King of Qin to strike the fou for the king of Zhao, to maintain the dignity of the country, and worshiped him as Shangqing, ranking above Lian Po.
Yiren, a famous general during the Qin Dynasty King Zhaoxiang, was good at annihilating enemies in field battles. In the Battle of Yique, he beheaded 240,000 Han and Wei coalition forces, defeated Ying, the capital of Chu, and was granted the title of Lord Wu'an; in the Battle of Changping, he defeated the Zhao army. Later, because he refused to lead troops to attack Handan again, he was at odds with Prime Minister Fan Ju and was sentenced to death in Du You.
The Qin King Zhaoxiang was the governor of Shu County at that time, and presided over the construction of Dujiangyan, which diverted water with Fish Mouth, Feisha Weir to release floods and sand, and diverted water from Baopingkou, which made the Chengdu Plain "a land of abundance" where floods and droughts were controlled by people. This project has been in use for more than 2,000 years and is still in effect today.
Named Wuji, half-brother of King Anli of Wei, a courtesy corporal, with three thousand diners under his sect. Together with Meng Changjun, Ping Yuanjun, and Chun Shenjun, he was also known as the "Four Princes of the Warring States Period". After stealing the talisman to save Zhao, he stayed in Zhao for ten years. In 247 BC, he returned to Wei and led the five-nation coalition to defeat the Qin army. Later, he was jealous of the king of Wei and died in depression.
Ming Kuang, a native of Zhao State, was respectfully called Xun Qing at that time. He once served as the Jixia Academy of Qi State for three times, and in his later years he served as the Lanling Order of Chu State. He advocates "evil nature", attaches great importance to etiquette and acquired education, and proposes "controlling the destiny of heaven and using it". Han Fei and Li Si both came from his family.
He was originally a big businessman in Yangzhai. He believed that Zichu, who was a hostage in Zhao, was a "rare thing to live in", so he supported him and established him as an adopted child. After the King Zhuangxiang ascended the throne, he was appointed as the prime minister and was granted the title of Marquis Wenxin. King Zheng of Qin respected him as "Zhongfu" and presided over the compilation of "Lu's Spring and Autumn period". Later, he was implicated in Lao Ai's case and committed suicide by drinking poison.
Prince of South Korea, who studied under Xun Zi with Li Si, stuttered but was good at writing. He synthesized Shang Yang's "method", Shen Buhai's "technique", and Shen Dao's "power", and gathered the culmination of Legalism. King Zheng of Qin was impressed after reading his article. Later Han Fei went to Qin as an envoy, but was framed by Li Si and Yao Jia and died in prison.